![](data:image/svg+xml;utf8,<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1" height="1920px" width="2400px"></svg>)
W hile printmaking produces multiple rather than unique originals, this does not undermine the precious value and inimitable history of the medium. In actuality, the degree of skill, variety and beauty in the printed surface makes this one of the most rewarding and rarest art forms to collect.
Considering printmaking metaphorically as a family tree is a colorful way to comprehend the complex and multifaceted nature behind its creation. While all prints at their root consist of paper utilizing an original matrix, the three major divisions – relief, intaglio and planographic – then branch out into multiple, specialized subsets, with the oldest being relief.
First invented in Asia during the 9th century and then developed in Europe 500 years later, woodblock relief printmaking is at the very foundation of the medium. Herein, the parts of the surface that will print are left raised, while everything else is carved away. A clear example can be seen in a humble rubber stamp, whose imprint is created through a relief process.
Perhaps most famously, though, relief printmaking was pioneered by Johannes Gutenberg with the movable-type printing press, in which individual, cast-metal letters were arranged and pressed at a rapid rate onto paper, such as in the Gutenberg Bible. While this method of print led to an unprecedented dissemination of knowledge, it has also been popularly used across centuries to create important works of art.
Woodcuts are the oldest form of printmaking, yet the medium has remained relevant throughout history, exerting influence across many cultures.
One of the most important artists to implement woodcut in his practice was Edvard Munch. A distinctive feature of Munch’s woodcut technique was his “jigsaw” approach wherein he sawed a single wood block into pieces, inked each one separately and then reassembled the composition before printing it in a single pass.
Linocuts were invented in the early 20th century, when European artists began experimenting with industrial linoleum as the relief surface to carve an image into. The result was a highly polished, graphic and modern approach to printmaking that was also accessible and engaging.
This sleek and elegant mode is exemplified in the 1960’s printmaking of Pablo Picasso. His large portrait heads of Jacqueline Roque and Bacchanalian scenes were beautifully captured by the technique. The colors were bold and smooth, the layers creating a sense of depth.
Appearing later in the 1400s, intaglio prints are the inverse of relief. The desired image is created in the recessed parts of the plate, where pools of ink sit and are eventually imparted onto paper.
Intaglio offered makers a degree of finesse previously unknown, thanks to tools such as fine metallic needles or a burin, which allowed artists to draw their images directly onto the surface. Artists can control the weight of each line to achieve a dramatic effect. For some intaglio prints, the plate is run through an acid bath, which bites the metallic plate, incising it for printing.
Although the exact methods of intaglio are quite technical, their resulting images are ubiquitous among master printmakers such as Rembrandt and Francisco de Goya, who leveraged this method to create astoundingly atmospheric compositions.
Among the earliest intaglio methods, engraving involves cutting directly into a polished metal plate with a sharp tool called a burin. The incised lines hold ink, which is then transferred to paper under pressure. This precise and labor-intensive technique produces clean, controlled marks that can achieve astonishing clarity and detail.
During the Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer elevated engraving into a fine art form with his virtuosic command of line, creating prints that rivaled paintings in complexity. In the 18th century, William Hogarth used engraving to circulate his satirical scenes widely, while in the modern era, artists such as Giorgio Morandi adapted the method for quieter, more contemplative studies.
Collectors prize engravings not only for their technical refinement but also for their enduring role in shaping the visual culture of Europe.
Among intaglio processes, etching stands out as one of the most widely used, taken up by artists of varied periods and movements. First, a metal plate is treated with acid-resistant varnish or wax, known as the “ground.” After that, an etching needle, essentially a blunt stylus, is used to draw into the ground to render the desired image. Finally, the plate is dipped in acid that eats away at the exposed lines, leaving an image made up of lines that will hold the ink during printing.
Active in etching from the mid-1620s to 1660, Rembrandt utilized the highly adjustable medium to create works that ranged from intensely introspective self-portraits to dramatic biblical scenes rendered in a complex series of fine lines.
Beginning in the 1960s, Jasper Johns, another master of etching, took a more minimalist approach to explore the purity of line contours, creating iconic imagery utilizing very graphic subject matter such as the target or the American flag.
Even more recently, etching has been implemented by artists such as Richard Diebenkorn, who utilized the technique to create bold, engrossing work, wherein fine lines intersect with overlapping swatches of color.
Dry-point is the most immediate method of etching, as it involves no chemical substances. Rather, the artist directly incises the surface of the plate. The results in printing are an effect called burr, which creates soft, expressive lines and fragility in the plate.
Typically, dry-point is used in conjunction with other intaglio methods, and pure dry-point prints are relatively rare. However, exceptional and valuable examples exist from artists such as Rembrandt, Pablo Picasso, Mary Cassatt and Vija Celmins.
Mezzotint, meaning “half-tone” in Italian, achieves an extraordinary level of tonality by roughening the original metal plate with a metal tool with small teeth or a “rocker.” This gives the image a velvety, soft richness that isn’t often seen in other forms of prints. The tonality lends itself to a degree of verisimilitude that has been leveraged for centuries. An incredible contemporary example of this can be seen in the work of the artist Vija Celmins, who utilized this tonality to convey the atmospheric qualities of her ethereal starry skies and endless oceans.
Sometimes considered a counterpart to mezzotint, aquatint also creates rich tonal effects on prints, which is achieved by dusting the original plate with a fine metallic powder that is grainier than mezzotints but very similar. This method was named for its inky, watercolor-like qualities, which it imparts to prints.
Mary Cassatt perhaps most famously used Aquatint to create compositions of feminine domestic scenes whose intimacy was heightened by this medium. Cassatt’s prints recall the soft, emotional quality of watercolors and demonstrate just how distinct aquatints can appear.
The most recent major method of printmaking to be developed is planographic, which is most commonly associated with lithography. Playwright Alois Senefelder accidentally discovered the process at the end of the 18th century while trying to make more affordable prints for the theater, which led him to use greasy oils on a smooth, heavy stone that would attract ink while the wet areas repelled it, allowing him to print directly from the planar surface.
Planographic printing became the dominant commercial mode of printing in the 20th century, thanks to the evolution of offset lithography – a fast and reliable method for producing printed materials, including newspapers, books, posters and packaging. Despite its commercial value, lithography still holds an important place in artist history.
As one of the most essential methods for mass printing in the 20th century, lithography played a crucial role in disseminating reproductions of artworks worldwide. Many artists also incorporated the medium into their oeuvres.
Building on his evocative depiction of pool water suffused with light, David Hockney, for example, has employed lithography to explore new ways to capture a distinct, gleaming sapphire color. Here, the artist brought out the bold and expressive possibilities of the medium, showing how it could be manipulated to create singular images.
Initially a commercial process, used in signage or t-shirts, screenprinting is accomplished when ink is transferred through a mesh screen onto a surface by applying pressure with a squeegee.
Andy Warhol, popularized the screenprint when he appropriated the everyday object or immortalized the celebrity of the moment. Pop Art titan Roy Lichtenstein utilized screenprint to animate his cartoon-like scenery and later Keith Haring leaned on screenprinting as a favorite way to bring to life his distinctive characters.
During the 20th century, many artists intentionally harnessed the commercial nature and associations of offset lithography, which is an efficient evolution of traditional lithography, more automated and thus more adept at producing high-quality images in large print runs.
In this process, the image is not transferred directly from the matrix to paper but rather there is a step in between and such an indirect method allows for high-quality, high-volume reproduction. Some of the most notable offset lithographs are prints initially made as gifts or invitations by gallerist Leo Castelli featuring the art of his artists Andy Warhol or Roy Lichtenstein.
While the majority of printmaking, especially planographic, can inherently be used to create multiple copies, monotypes stand apart as the only print method that produces a unique example. An image in ink is applied to a smooth, flat surface, which is then forced against paper through a press, imparting the impression of the image that is mostly gone from the plate after it has been pushed through the process.
Edgar Degas is the most important Impressionist to have used monotype, investing himself entirely in the process since the late 19th century. This method of printing enabled the artist to imbue an electric sense of motion and spontaneity to his beloved dancers. Degas would also apply pastels and crayons to the surface of his monotypes to enhance the images, further adding to their allure.
Monotype continued as a popular printmaking technique utilized by contemporary artists such as Sam Francis who incorporated metals, sticks & various pigments in his compositions or Jasper Johns, whose iconic cross hatches and Savarin paint cans were immortalized by the medium.
The captivating variety and seminal history behind printmaking offers endless beauty and charm awaiting discovery. Close looking is a simple prerequisite to truly understanding these sumptuous surfaces and a rich history of finesse, creativity and ingenuity.
